AP Government & Politics Cheat Sheet 2026
9 Required Foundational Documents
| Document | Key Ideas / What to Know |
|---|---|
| Declaration of Independence (1776) | Natural rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness); social contract; right to alter or abolish government; grievances against King George; Lockean philosophy |
| Articles of Confederation (1781) | First US government — weak central authority, no power to tax/regulate commerce, no executive or federal courts; led to Constitutional Convention |
| Constitution (1787) | Separation of powers; checks and balances; federalism; three branches; supremacy clause; necessary and proper clause; elastic clause |
| Federalist No. 10 (Madison) | Factions are inevitable but large republics control them; pluralism; representative democracy better than direct democracy |
| Brutus No. 1 (Anti-Federalist) | Argued the Constitution gave too much power to central government; feared standing army, necessary and proper clause, and supremacy clause |
| Federalist No. 51 (Madison) | Ambition must counteract ambition; separation of powers; checks and balances; compound republic; human nature argument for divided government |
| Federalist No. 70 (Hamilton) | Single executive needed for energy, decisiveness, accountability; argued for unitary executive |
| Federalist No. 78 (Hamilton) | Judiciary as "least dangerous branch"; defended judicial review; life tenure for judges; independent judiciary essential |
| Letter from Birmingham Jail (King, 1963) | Distinction between just and unjust laws; civil disobedience; urgency of civil rights; addressed to white moderate clergy |
Most-Tested Constitutional Amendments
| Amendment | Year | What It Does |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1791 | Freedom of speech, press, religion (free exercise + establishment), assembly, petition |
| 2nd | 1791 | Right to keep and bear arms; militia context (now interpreted as individual right — D.C. v. Heller) |
| 4th | 1791 | Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures; warrant requirement; probable cause |
| 5th | 1791 | Grand jury, double jeopardy, self-incrimination (Miranda), due process, takings clause |
| 6th | 1791 | Right to speedy/public trial, jury, confront witnesses, counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright) |
| 10th | 1791 | Powers not delegated to federal government reserved to states or people — basis for states' rights |
| 14th | 1868 | Citizenship, equal protection clause, due process clause, privileges/immunities; incorporation doctrine applies Bill of Rights to states |
| 15th | 1870 | Voting rights — cannot be denied based on race, color, or previous servitude |
| 19th | 1920 | Women's suffrage — right to vote cannot be denied based on sex |
| 22nd | 1951 | Presidential term limits — max 2 elected terms |
| 25th | 1967 | Presidential succession; VP fills vacancy; cabinet can declare president unfit |
| 26th | 1971 | Voting age lowered to 18 (passed during Vietnam War) |
15 Required Supreme Court Cases
| Case | Year | Ruling / Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Marbury v. Madison | 1803 | Established judicial review — Supreme Court can strike down laws as unconstitutional |
| McCulloch v. Maryland | 1819 | Federal supremacy; necessary & proper clause gives Congress implied powers; states cannot tax federal gov't |
| Schenck v. United States | 1919 | "Clear and present danger" test for limiting speech; upheld conviction for anti-draft pamphlets during WWI |
| Brown v. Board of Education | 1954 | Overruled Plessy; racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional under 14th Amendment equal protection |
| Baker v. Carr | 1962 | Federal courts can hear redistricting cases (legislative apportionment); "one person, one vote" principle |
| Engel v. Vitale | 1962 | School-sponsored prayer violates Establishment Clause of 1st Amendment |
| Gideon v. Wainwright | 1963 | 6th Amendment right to counsel applies to states; indigent defendants must have attorney provided |
| Tinker v. Des Moines | 1969 | Students don't "shed rights at schoolhouse gate"; symbolic speech (armbands) protected unless causes substantial disruption |
| New York Times v. United States | 1971 | Pentagon Papers case; prior restraint of press requires heavy burden; press freedom upheld |
| Wisconsin v. Yoder | 1972 | Amish parents' Free Exercise rights outweigh compulsory education law for children after 8th grade |
| Roe v. Wade | 1973 | Privacy right extended to abortion; trimester framework; OVERRULED by Dobbs v. Jackson (2022) |
| Shaw v. Reno | 1993 | Race-based gerrymandering violates Equal Protection Clause; racial classification subject to strict scrutiny |
| United States v. Lopez | 1995 | Congress exceeded Commerce Clause authority with Gun-Free School Zones Act; limited federal power |
| McDonald v. Chicago | 2010 | 2nd Amendment right to bear arms incorporated to states via 14th Amendment |
| Citizens United v. FEC | 2010 | Political spending by corporations/associations is protected 1st Amendment speech; struck down campaign finance limits |
Legislative Branch (Congress)
House of Representatives
- 435 members, 2-year terms
- Apportioned by population
- Originates revenue bills (Art. I §7)
- Sole power to impeach
- Speaker of the House leads
- More partisan, rules limit debate
Senate
- 100 senators (2 per state), 6-year terms (staggered — ⅓ up every 2 years)
- Confirms executive nominations & treaties
- Tries impeachments (2/3 to convict)
- Filibuster: extended debate to block votes (requires 60 votes for cloture)
- More deliberative; extended debate allowed
Congressional Powers
- Elastic clause (Art. I §8): necessary & proper — implied powers
- Power of the purse (appropriations)
- Declare war, regulate commerce, coin money
- Override veto with 2/3 majority both chambers
- Override presidential veto (2/3 both chambers)
Executive Branch
Presidential Powers
- Commander in Chief of armed forces
- Veto legislation (pocket veto available)
- Executive orders — direct agencies, have force of law
- Pardon power — for federal offenses
- Appoint federal judges, cabinet, ambassadors (Senate confirms)
- Negotiate treaties (2/3 Senate approval)
- State of the Union address
Informal Powers
- Bully pulpit (going public)
- Executive agreements (bypass Senate)
- Signing statements
- Control of information
Electoral College: 538 electors; 270 needed to win. Winner-take-all in 48 states. If no majority → House decides (contingent election).
Judicial Branch
Supreme Court Structure
- 9 justices, lifetime appointments (Art. III)
- Chief Justice + 8 Associate Justices
- Certiorari: writ granting SCOTUS review (~80 cases/year accepted of ~8,000 petitions)
- Rule of Four: 4 justices must agree to hear case
- Opinion types: majority, concurrence, dissent, plurality
Judicial Review (Marbury v. Madison)
- Power to declare laws unconstitutional
- Not explicitly in Constitution — inferred by Marshall Court
- Applies to federal AND state laws (via 14th Amend.)
Judicial Philosophy
- Strict constructionism: interpret Constitution as originally written/intended
- Living Constitution: interpret in light of evolving standards
- Stare decisis: follow precedent (Brown overruled Plessy)
Federalism
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Enumerated powers | Powers explicitly given to Congress (Art. I §8) |
| Implied powers | Elastic/necessary & proper clause — powers needed to carry out enumerated powers |
| Reserved powers | 10th Amendment — powers not delegated → states |
| Concurrent powers | Both federal AND state (taxing, courts, police power) |
| Supremacy clause | Art. VI — federal law supreme over state law |
Types of Federalism Over Time
- Dual federalism (layer cake): strict separation of federal/state — pre-New Deal
- Cooperative federalism (marble cake): federal-state cooperation — New Deal era
- Coercive federalism: federal mandates on states (funded & unfunded)
- New federalism (devolution): returning power to states — Reagan, Nixon
Grants: Categorical (specific purpose, strings attached) vs. Block grants (broad purpose, more state flexibility) vs. Revenue sharing (no conditions).
Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights
| Civil Liberties | Civil Rights | |
|---|---|---|
| What | Protections FROM government action (1st, 4th, 5th, 6th Amend.) | Protections from discrimination; equal treatment (14th Amend.) |
| Example | Free speech, right against unreasonable search | Voting rights, school desegregation |
| Key case | Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) | Brown v. Board (1954) |
Levels of Scrutiny (courts)
- Rational basis: any legitimate government purpose (economic regulations)
- Intermediate scrutiny: gender classifications — must be substantially related to important government interest
- Strict scrutiny: race, national origin, religion, fundamental rights — government must have compelling interest, narrowly tailored
Political Parties & Elections
Party Functions
- Recruit candidates, run campaigns
- Organize government (majority controls committees)
- Linkage institutions: connect citizens to government
- Two-party system reinforced by winner-take-all elections (Duverger's Law)
Electoral System
- Primaries: Open (anyone votes) vs. Closed (only party members)
- Gerrymandering: drawing districts to favor a party/race; racial — Shaw v. Reno
- Incumbency advantage: name recognition, franking, casework, PAC money
- Campaign finance: Citizens United (2010) — corporate spending = protected speech; FEC regulates hard money
Interest Groups & Media
Types of Interest Groups
- Economic/Business: NRA, Chamber of Commerce, unions (AFL-CIO)
- Public Interest: ACLU, NAACP, Sierra Club
- Single-issue: focus on one policy area
Lobbying Tactics
- Direct: testify, draft legislation, meet with officials
- Grassroots: mobilize public pressure on lawmakers
- Litigation: file amicus curiae briefs, fund test cases
- Electioneering: PACs, Super PACs, campaign contributions
Media's Role
- Agenda setting: what issues get attention
- Framing: how issues are presented
- Priming: what criteria voters use to judge politicians
- Watchdog role; "fourth estate"
Federal Bureaucracy
Structure
- Cabinet departments: State, Defense, Treasury, etc. (15 total)
- Independent agencies: NASA, EPA, CIA
- Regulatory commissions: FCC, FEC, SEC — independent from executive
- Government corporations: USPS, Amtrak
Congressional Oversight Tools
- Appropriations (power of purse)
- Confirmation hearings
- Investigations / subpoenas
- Legislative veto (ruled unconstitutional — INS v. Chadha)
Iron Triangle: Congressional committee + interest group + executive agency — mutually beneficial relationship that resists change. AKA "subgovernment."
Public Policy & Budget
Policy Types
- Distributive: government distributes benefits broadly (farm subsidies, NASA)
- Redistributive: transfer resources from some to others (Medicare, Medicaid, welfare)
- Regulatory: restrict/promote private sector behavior (EPA rules)
- Foreign policy: isolationism → internationalism → unilateralism → multilateralism
Budget Process
- President submits budget in February
- Congress passes budget resolution, then 13 appropriations bills
- Mandatory spending: entitlements (SS, Medicare, Medicaid) — ~65% of budget
- Discretionary spending: defense, education, others — ~35%
- Interest on debt is mandatory
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